Exerpt from
Textiles: a handbook for Designers by
M. Yates
Techniques for Repeats
As previously
discussed, textile designs are developed in such a way that along the entire
length of the fabric one unit of the design will be repeated, side by side and end to
end (figure 9-1). The size of these repeat units varies, depending on the width of
the fabric, the type of printing, and the machinery used for the printing.
Upholstery
fabrics are almost always 54" wide, and a halfwidth (27") is the measurement on which most furniture cushions are based. (Because the selvedges are not
usable fabric, fabric widths are
measured from within the selvedges.) The
selvedges and vertical middle of the goods become seam areas and edges of furniture cushions, therefore
motifs are not usually centralized on
these portions of the fabric (figure 9-2).
Because upholstery fabric widths are
standard, they can be designed in a
27"-wide repeat. For fabric manufacturers, these repeats are usually
square (that is, 27" vertically and horizontally) because this size fits furniture easily; however, more expensive home furnishing fabrics often use 36”
vertical repeats.
Drapery fabrics, likewise, are of a standard width. The
goods are almost always 48" wide, and designs are developed in a 24" horizontal repeat. The vertical
repeat is often the same length.
For apparel fabrics, repeat sizes
can vary tremendously not only because fabric widths may be from 36" to
60" but because any printing method can be used. Textile designs intended for apparel
are most often designed in croquis form, to be sized later
into the repeat required for a specific project. Usually the repeat will measure
approximately 14" to 16"vertically and horizontally will be any size
that divides evenly into the fabric width.
Other products have specific repeat sizes for
specific end uses. For sheeting fabrics
in the
Five-star repeats, which are produced as a straight
repeat, feature a
large motif in the center of the repeat unit with a quarter of the motif appearing at
each corner of the unit. It should be
noted that, when a 27" half-drop repeat is used on a 54"
upholstery fabric or when a 24" half-drop
repeat is used on a 48" drapery
fabric, the two vertical halves of the fabric
will differ. Usually this is not a problem; two lengths of drapery fabric are usually sewn together to form a
drapery, and upholstery fabric is
usually cut to 27" squares to fit furniture cushions. Sometimes,
however, it may be preferable that when the
fabric is split in the warp direction the two halves be identical. In this case, the horizontal repeat size must be half the usual size.
Metrification
Fabrics produced
in countries other than the
The chart on that
follows outlines repeat sizes for specific uses measured in English and metric units.
This is intended only as a guideline.
Many factors cause deviation from these measurements: each company's equipment
varies, copper rollers become worn down, new problems
arise with fabric for every end use. Consistencies regarding repeat sizes are truly the exception.
CHART FOR REPEAT
AND FABRIC SIZES
|
FABRIC USE |
TYPE OF PRINTING |
AMERICAN REPEAT SIZE |
METRIC REPEAT SIZE |
TYPICAL WIDTH OF FABRIC |
|||||
|
|
|
Vertical |
Horizontal |
Vertical |
Horizontal |
American |
Metric |
||
|
Upholstery (primarily for decorative industry) with fewer colors |
Flat bed screen |
27" |
27" |
90-120 cm |
70 cm Larger size possible with fewer colors |
54" |
140 cm |
||
|
|
Rotary screen |
25 1/4" |
27” |
64 cm |
70 cm |
|
|
||
|
|
|
27 |
|
72 cm |
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
36 |
|
92 cm |
|
|
|
||
|
|
Heat transfer |
18 |
27" |
46 cm |
70 cm |
|
|
||
|
|
|
23 5/8 |
|
60 cm |
|
|
|
||
|
|
|
31 1/2 |
|
80 cm |
|
|
|
||
|
Drapery (primarily for contract industry |
Rotary screen |
25 1/4
27 |
24 36 |
This width not common in |
|
48" |
Width not common in |
||
|
Apparel |
Flat-bed screen |
Rarely used in |
|
90-120 cm Larger size possible with fewer colors |
Any size evenly divisible into width of fabric |
36" 44-45" 48-50" 55" 60" |
110 cm 120 cm 130 cm 140 cm 150 cm |
||
|
|
Rotary screen |
251/4 27 36 |
Any size evenly divisible into width of fabric |
64 cm 72 cm 92 cm |
“ “ |
|
|
||
|
|
Engraved roller(rarely used) |
-14-16" roller
becomes slightly smaller
each time it is burnished down and re-engraved |
“ “ |
40-42 cm roller becomes slightly smaller each time it is burnished down and re-engraved |
“ “ |
|
|
||
|
|
Heat transfer |
18 23 5/8 31 1/2 |
46 cm 60 cm 80 cm |
" |
|
|
|
||
Repeat sizes for
specific uses such as sheets, towels, pillowcases, and scarves vary between
manufacturers and are often engineered.
The American sizes/metric sizes may not be exactly
equal. Rather, they are customarily used sizes for the same printing method in
the different systems of measure. Also, exceptions to these rules are as common
as the rules themselves. (For reference: 1" 2.54 cm.)
Repeat sizes as given above refer to
the maximum possible size for the specific use and equipment. Any smaller size that evenly
divisible into the number given is also possible. For example, with a 27" screen, 131/2" & 73/4" are common design repeats.
Mill Styling
An additional aspect of a textile
designer's job involves styling fabrics at the exact time that the initial
production run is made at the mill or print plant.
A few companies locate their
studios at the mill. A large mill's staff often includes a mill stylist, whose entire
job is to evaluate these initial fabric runs to be sure that the fabric corresponds
accurately with the original artwork on paper. Most often, however,
mill styling is done by the firm's studio artists, who travel from
the main office (usually in
In printed
fabric, the initial production run is called a strike-off.
Print plants usually operate twenty-four hours a day, and necessary
strike-offs are usually scheduled to begin early in the day. The night before, the
designer arrives in the town where the print plant is located so that early in the morning he can be at the plant to begin. As the fabric
production on the new pattern begins, enough fabric is printed to run
completely through the machine; then, a yard
or two is cut off to show to the
designer. A particular place with the best light available within the plant is usually designated for the
designer and head printer to view the
fresh fabric swatch (called a patch) and compare it with the artwork. Because the light in the factory is usually not good enough, it is difficult to
evaluate the fabric on the print
machine.
The color of the fabric is, of
course, compared with the artwork for correctness of hue, value, intensity, and fullness (heaviness or dilution of the color). The design is checked
both for fit (proper
registration), to ascertain that motifs occur at the desired location
in the design, and for quality of the mark
(clarity and precision of desired line and shape). If other mistakes have been made in
printing, such as the accidental interchanging of two colors, they must be corrected
at this point.
The designer comments on
adjustments that need to be made in production; then the printers go back
to work and try again. In a few minutes or a couple of hours, another patch will
be ready
to show the designer.
The decisions must be made quickly
and precisely. During this interval the print machines are stopped and waiting while
the
designer makes adjustments; every minute that the machines are not
printing fabric costs the printing plant money. Depending on the clarity with which
the designer can explain the necessary changes and the cooperation of the mill
personnel, one or two patches may be enough to reproduce the artwork accurately;
or many more changes may be required. Strike-offs of several patterns are
usually done in one day, and the designer may be at the print plant until all hours of the night, or he may be sent back to this hotel and
called to come in at an odd hour.
With strike-offs, when the machines are ready the decisions must be made expertly so fabric can continue being printed and production can recommence.
It is the designer who guides the printers in producing the planned
textile design. With experience, he knows what can realistically be accomplished through printing and what goals are only wishful thinking. Printing capabilities
differ vastly from printer to printer
and fabric to fabric. The designer's enthusiastic
cooperation with the mill personnel contributes mightily toward accomplishing direct and rapid success. Mill styling
(also called mill work) can be
tiring, draining, and even boring
after many hours of waiting for strike-offs; but it is almost impossible to be a successful designer
without a thorough knowledge of this
aspect of textile production. Once a designer sees firsthand what can
and cannot be accomplished in printing,
studio work becomes much more realistic and meaningful.
Mill styling of woven fabrics is a
completely different matter. Woven stylists often spend time at the mill because
familiarity with and understanding of each mill's machinery and capability is an
integral part of their design work. Woven design largely involves inventing new
ways to combine and use what
a particular mill can do.
However, new adaptations and new
colorings of woven fabrics involving changes of warps cannot be made within a
matter of hours, as with
prints. Therefore, woven fabrics are rarely evaluated,
changed, and developed during a day at the mill. Rather, the designer submits requests to the mill and visits it to observe progress; also, samples (called headends) are
returned to the designer for
necessary changes. All this may take days of weeks, usually not hours.
However, when only filling changes are
necessary, woven fabrics are often colored at the mill. Once a yarn-dyed fabric
has
been developed, a blanket
is usually woven, showing all (or many) of the possible color
combinations using the available yarn colors. This involves weaving samples on a blanket warp, which is set up on a loom with different sections of all available warp
colors in the particular construction (figure 10-2). For example, if twenty warps
are available in the specific construction, a 54" warp could be set up with
approximately 2 Y2'
sections of each warp color arranged side by side across the width of the warp. Alternate filling choices are then tried,
by sequentially weaving sections of a few inches of each choice so that each crossing of colors shows a
different possibility.
Coloring fabrics in this manner is
especially common in upholstery fabrics and multicolor fabrics, which are often
done at the mill by a designer. (For fabrics with a solid filling color, all possible
choices are usually tried.) The designer may write out many possible
combinations ahead of time so the sample weavers at the mill can set up all necessary
yarn colors ahead of time, setting up also the correct pattern on the loom. The designer works
with the sample weaver, evaluating each combination as it is woven, making changes as
required, and adding other possibilities as desired. Although this on-the-spot
evaluation
is much more expedient than waiting for blankets to be shipped to
the studio, it is in some ways less beneficial than with printed
fabrics. For example, the blanket, unlike strikeoffs, cannot be cut off the loom and
viewed under better light as it is produced; and the light in the weaving shed may
be deceiving.
Because blankets are samples and not the beginning of actual
production as strike-offs are, woven coloring at the mill is a
somewhat less pressured situation than print mill work.
Once the combinations are tried
and the blanket is completed, it is taken off the loom and sent back to the
designer at the studio (figure 10-3). The colors are cut from the blanket and evaluated,
and a color line is chosen. If the designer was able to try desired possibilities
at the mill, little change is necessary after the blanket is received. In this
manner, much time and
inconvenience is saved sending requests and samples back and forth from the mill to the studio. For both
woven and printed fabric designers,
mill work is and important aspect of professional performance.
Presentation of Designs
When a designer puts together a
portfolio of work to show for job interviews, individual designs, sales, or any
presentation, certain formats are customarily used.
Designs for apparel, which are
usually small-sized croquis, are mounted on white
Bristol board or similar stock. The designs will probably vary in size, but all
the mounts should be of the same size for uniformity. Two or more very small
designs that were designed to go together or simply look good together may be
shown on one board. With a long-reach stapler, designs are stapled to the board
with one staple at each of the two upper corners of the design. On the back of
the mount board, the staples are covered with masking tape so that they will
not scratch other designs in the portfolio. When mount boards become tired and
worn looking, they should be replaced.
Designs may instead be spliced
into sheets of board. This makes an attractive presentation and is much lighter
when many designs are carried in a portfolio.
Color tabs may or may
not be shown with croquis but usually are shown with
color combinations. Color combinations are usually shown together on one
board. So that each board is loose and may be easily pulled out from the group
when necessary, all of the mount boards with designs are usually carried and
shown in a large, black, zippered porfolio.
Because decorative designs, being
much larger than apparel designs, may not fit into a portfolio when laid flat,
they are not usually mounted, but are reinforced on the back of the design
around the edges with a continuous strip of masking tape. The designs may be
cropped to the exact boundaries of the painted design or may show the entire sheet
of paper with boundaries and margins around the design. Color chips are usually
shown, and designs that are in repeat are always
shown, not only as one repeat unit but also with the beginning of the next
repeat units on the right and bottom sides of the main unit. These large
designs are rolled and carried in a large mailing tube, or the roll is simply
covered with brown wrapping paper for hand transport.
Woven-cloth designers may either
mount individual swatches on small boards or place the fabrics in a portfolio
with a ring binder and vinyl-covered pages.
Once a designer has some work
experience, actual fabric samples will almost always be included in the
portfolio along with the artwork. The fabric is neatly folded and placed in the
large portfolio or in another bag to be shown when necessary. Publicity,
advertising, and other printed material showing photographs or fabric, either
alone or in use, may make up a part of a portfolio. To illustrate his way of
thinking during the design process, the designer may also show sketches to show
ideas about the end product with swatches or croquis.
Many artists develop original,
attractive, and innovative ways of showing textile designs. Any presentation
that not only clearly exhibits the work but also demonstrates the designer's
overall personality and sense of style will only be more interesting to
potential employers or customers.
Artwork intended to be sold or
shown to a customer should have a clean, neat, and precise appearance. This has
been one focus of this text, but it should also be understood that a lot of
textile artwork developed in studios goes directly to the engraver who prepares
the screens or rollers, the artwork being purely a working record of the
design. In real life, artwork does not always look perfect; on the contrary, it
is done in the quickest, simplest way to accomplish the necessary results. If
this artwork is later shown, any observer will appreciate the accomplished
result while understanding that it was not developed to be a presentation
piece.
Although it is difficult to define
exactly what should be shown in a portfolio, a general guideline is that it
should show both the artist's breadth of ability and his ability to develop a
focused approach to one design area. To show both capabilities, the portfolio
should include different types of layouts, designs (florals,
geometrics, etc.), and rendering techniques as well as one or two series of
designs that work together and make a "story." A variety of color
looks is also important, and at least one color group that weighs in should be
shown. Each artist has a particular hand (that
is, style of drawing and rendering), but it is most desirable that an artist
show designs with both a tight and loose hand (realistic, controlled and
free, stylized rendering, respectively). Versatility and an ability to compose
a cohesive package of designs are the traits most sought in a textile
designer.
Before designs are shown to a
prospective buyer, the designer should thoroughly research the company so he
can show appropriate designs. Portfolios are often adjusted according to the
types of customers to whom they will be shown.
Although a portfolio may contain
artwork that is several years old, it should contain nothing that looks dated
or in any way problematic. A portfolio is much better with fewer pieces of the
highest possible quality than with a large number that include a single piece
requiring explanation and apology.
On the back of all designs should
be written not only color recipes but also the repeat size, if the design is in
repeat. Finally, and most important of all, for the designer's own protection
the artist's name and the copyright date should be lettered prominently on the
back of each piece of artwork.
Whenever possible, original
artwork should be shown rather than a photostat,
photograph, or color photocopy, since much of the character of the original
work is lost through reproduction.
Professional Practices
The textile industry is an
exciting and rewarding field for designers. However, business practices are
somewhat weighted in favor of management, often to the unfair disadvantage of
the design professional.
Compared with artists in other
disciplines such as graphic design, illustration, and photography, textile
designers traditionally receive less pay, receive credit for their work less
frequently, very seldom receive royalties, pay their agents a larger
percentage, and must often relinquish copyrights on their work. Most of these
practices have become commonplace because of the designer's ignorance, and the
almost universal acceptance of low standards makes it even more difficult for
individual designers to demand what they are due.
Nowadays, however, designers are
becoming much more aware of professional standards, largely through improved
and increased communication among themselves. Flow of information among
practicing artists of all disciplines allows standardization of pricing and of
business practices.
To begin a discussion of how
specific business practices should be handled is, indeed, to open Pandora's box. Although many common practices are unfair, it is
difficult for any designer to stand up for principles and simultaneously maintain
and develop cooperative relationships with the management of textile companies.
As a designer becomes more experienced, healthy work relationships-and not
rebellious, non-trusting behavior on the part of a designer-are what promote
ethical standards in the industry. While the designer constantly considers his
professional reputation, he must also help to establish industry-wide
professional standards. The issues differ for free-lance and staff artists; but
because staff artists often hire or buy from free-lancers (who are actually
self-employed), the ethical questions confronted in this profession need to be
understood by everyone.
The most important concern of an
artist is his right to control the use of his work. As soon as a designer
creates an original textile design, he has federal copyright, which lasts for
the artist's life plus fifty years. Copyright is a bundle of rights, allowing
artists to control separately and with specific limitations the usage of the
artwork. For the artist's protec tion,
copyright notice should be placed on all work. This notice must include
copyright, copr., or ©; the artist's name or an abbreviation by which the
artist is known; and the year of first publication. Furthermore, for the
artist's protection, all artwork should be registered with the U.S. Copyright
Office. Because unpublished work can be registered in groups, the $10
registration fee can cover, for example, all designs created by one artist
during one year. All copyright registration forms and a Copyright Information
Kit can be obtained at no charge from the Copyright Office, Library of Congress,
If artwork is created in the
course of a designer's full-time employment, the employer has copyright of the
work unless a statement has been signed to the contrary. When, however, a
textile work created by a free-lance artist is printed or manufactured, the
law presumes that the right to use the design for only that one designated
purpose has been transferred. The copyright, which is all other rights, belongs
to the creator of the work. Permission to use a design for any specific purpose
should be a written and signed authorization. Written authorization is necessary to transfer the copyright (all rights to use the design).
When a client pays a fee for the
rights to reproduce a textile design, he is in no way purchasing the artwork
itself; nor does the purchase of the artwork (for an additional fee, for example)
constitute a transfer of copyright.
Dealings between textile designers
and their agents or clients have long been handled verbally and without
specific stipulations. However, for the protection of all artists, every
designer should maintain written records. These include agreements with agents,
permission for artwork to be held by a potential buyer for a specified time,
and confirmation and invoice (billing) of every design project. When a design
project is accepted, all items requested by the client should be written out,
and this agreement should be signed by both the artist and the client. The
transfer of any right to reproduce a design should be made in writing, and a
written invoice (bill) should be sent to the client. These are simple
procedures that all business people need in order to avoid misunderstandings,
and to maintain permanent records.
Design fees depend on many
factors, including the type and complexity of the work, the artist's
reputation, and the value of the intended use of the artwork. If a buyer
intends to use the work for more than one purpose, especially for more than one
area of the market, he should pay more for the additional rights because the
artist might otherwise have sold the design to a buyer for a different market.
An artist may, for example, sell the rights to a design to one manufacturer for
wallpaper and to another for sheets and pillowcases. If one buyer wants to use
the work for both of these purposes, he should compensate the artist
accordingly.
All of these principles are more
easily stated than accomplished. Most textile design buyers are accustomed to
buying artwork for a flat fee, then either using the work as they please or
keeping it on file, perhaps not using it at all and never returning it to the
artist. This problem is compounded by studios, both European and American, that sell artwork and all rights to buyers for
relatively low prices. Additionally, a buyer often purchases a croquis or design simply to use the motifs in another
design, use the technique with other motifs, or otherwise change the design so
completely that it would be unrecognizable as a version of the specific
artwork. In this manner, buyers are accustomed to purchasing groups of croquis as studies-that is, springboards to work from-and
consider any name recognition of the creator of the work to be blowing a small
issue out of proportion. There are, however, laws in some states protecting an
artist from having his work changed so that it is presented to the public in a
distorted way.
Many buyers do not even bother
purchasing designs; they simply buy a yard of fabric to adapt the pattern in
one way or another. Unfortunately, the business of fabric design is often
viewed, not as creation of original work, but as redoing patterns already on
the market, varying the pattern only slightly to avoid copyright infringement.
Designers are often asked to do knock-offs; to oblige, the artist may become
liable. The converter requesting the knock-off should sign a statement
accepting responsibility.
Many buyers of artwork want
exclusive rights to a particular work and also want the artist to hold and not
sell similar designs to any other buyers in the same market. All of these
issues must be dealt with individually, depending on the artist's relationship
with the client and the price involved. Artists today, however, successfully
request and obtain equitable treatment from most clients.
Royalties and artist's credit
(with the designer's name on the fabric's selvedge) are particularly difficult
to obtain in the textile industry; but, as designers' reputations are
established, these compensations are becoming more frequent.
Although simultaneous work by an
artist for different, noncompetitive companies is reasonable, it is frowned
upon by many companies. When beginning a new project, artists are probably best
off discussing openly with those involved the areas that are potentially
sensitive. When everyone has been informed, uncertainties that arise later can
be dealt with more smoothly.
If the artist is expected to
relinquish certain incomeproducing projects, he
should, of course, be paid accordingly by the employer making the demands. Because
textile designers are often required to travel to mills and to work there long
hours consecutively during strikeoffs, these demands
on the designer may became abusive. When it is requested, most designers
receive compensatory time, and in some cases overtime, for mill work. Although
these hours at the mill may be long, most of the time is spent waiting for
fabric to be ready; and designers are usually comfortably accommodated during
their wait. It should also be noted that mill work is rarely done by rank
beginners; and the more experienced designer may also be required to travel not
only to mills, but also to trade shows, and numerous other events. Although at
times the job requirements disrupt the designer's personal life, they are no
more unreasonable than travel requirements of most other professions.
Textile designers may be salaried
employees of a firm, or they may be free-lance designers. Free-lance designers
may be paid on an hourly basis (usually for technical work, such as handweaving or fabric analysis), on a project basis, or at
a per diem rate. Rate estimates for projects are usually based on both the
artist's expected per diem rate and the time the project will require. Even
experienced designers find it difficult to predict the time and work
requirements of a project. Estimates are made with every aspect being carefully
considered; however, allowances must be agreed upon by both parties so that
the designer will be compensated for changes that are required during the
course of a project.
Per diem
rates, rather than a salary, are sometimes paid to artists who work full-time
for a company. Benefits (health insurance, vacation time) are included or
financial compensation is made in order that advantage not be
taken of the artist.
Unless the buyer agrees to pay for
the time required for the work whether or not the work is accepted, the artist
is imprudent to work on speculation. All
questions regarding pricing and ethical standards that arise during a
designer's career are best evaluated in the context of the professional
experience of several designers. Open communication among designers has been
greatly increased through the efforts of the Graphic Artists' Guild's Textile
Designers' Guild division. Although better researched for
some categories of the discipline than for others, their Pricing and Ethical Guidelines serves as an excellent basis for any
question on professional standards. The Graphic Artists' Guild maintains
offices in most major cities and can be consulted for further information.